The effect of land use and residential self-selection on automobile travel in the greater Sekondi-Takoradi area of Ghana using structural equation model
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.55779/ng52323Keywords:
Land use, PCA, residential self-selection, structural equation modelling, travel attitude, travel behaviourAbstract
Despite the suggestions by numerous studies over the years that spatial land use pattern influences travel behaviour, uncertainty remains about the existence, form, and the extent of any causal relationship between spatial land use and urban travel behaviour. This study seeks to provide a new dimension from the perspective of a medium-sized city in Africa by simultaneously incorporating attitudinal and socioeconomic variables in examining the relationship using structural equation model (SEM). Primary data collected using questionnaires from 534 households of adult commuters with private cars and spatial data of the built environment for households in the Greater Sekondi-Takoradi Area (GSTA) in Ghana were used in this study. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to reduce 25 statements attributed to travel attitude to four. Similarly, 22 statements attributed to neighbourhood preferences were also reduced to three. Latent constructs of four and 20 observed variables were analysed using SEM in LISREL 10.3 software. The fitness of the final model to the data was assessed using absolute, incremental, and parsimonious fit indices. The findings from the study indicated that socio-economic factors had a stronger influence on households’ automobile travel than self-selection, with land use having the least impact. The results are consistent with earlier studies that suggested self-selection has a greater impact than land use on households’ automobile travel. This suggests that land use policies can effectively be used in controlling households’ automobile travel when the effect of self-selection is simultaneously accounted for with the land use.
Metrics
References
Aditjandra PT, Mulley C, Nelson JD (2009). Extent to which sustainable travel to work can be explained by neighborhood design characteristics. Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2134:114-122. https://doi.org/10.3141/2134-14
Ahmad M, Anwer I, Yousuf MI, Javid MA, Ali N, Tesoriere G, Campisi T (2024). Investigating the key factors affecting public transport ridership in developing countries through Structural Equation Modeling. Sustainability 16(11):4426. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114426
Akinyode BF (2016). The use of Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) in built environment disciplines. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences 6(6):2224-5766. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/234674991.pdf
Bagley MN, Mokhtarian PL (2002). The impact of residential neighborhood type on travel behaviour: A structural equations modeling approach. The Annals of Regional Science 36:279-297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001680200083
Bhagat-Conway MW, Mirtich L, Salon D (2024). Subjective variables in travel behavior models: a critical review and standardized transport attitude measurement protocol (STAMP). Transportation 51:155-191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-022-10323-7
Biba S, Curtin KM, Manca G (2014). Who can access transit? Reviewing methods for determining population access to bus transit. A Journal of Policy Development and Research 16(2):193-204. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26326896
Biney E, Forkuo EK, Poku-Boansi M, Asare YM, Hackman KO, Yankey DB, Agbenorhevi AE, Annan E (2024). A comprehensive analysis and future projection of land use and land cover dynamics in a fast-growing city: A case study of Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis, Ghana. Scientific African 24:e02207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2024.e02366
Bohte W, Maat K, Wee BV (2009). Measuring attitudes in research on residential self‐selection and travel behaviour: A review of theories and empirical research. Transport Reviews 29(3):325-357. https://10.1080/01441640902808441
Cao X, Ettema DF (2014). Satisfaction with travel and residential self-selection: How do preferences moderate the impact of the Hiawatha Light Rail Transit line? Journal of Transport and Land Use 7(3):93-108. https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.v7i3.485
Cao X, Handy SL, Mokhtarian P (2006). The influences of the built environment and residential self-selection on pedestrian behavior: Evidence from Austin, TX. Transportation 33:1-20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-005-7027-2
Cao X, Mokhtarian PL, Handy SL (2007). Do changes in neighborhood characteristics lead to changes in travel behaviour? A Structural Equations Modeling Approach 34:535-556. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-007-9132-x
Cao X, Yang W (2017). Examining the effects of the built environment and residential self-selection on commuting trips and the related CO2 emissions: An empirical study in Guangzhou, China Transport. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 52:480-494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2017.02.003
Chatman D (2014). Estimating the effect of land use and transportation planning on travel patterns: Three problems in controlling for residential self-selection. The Journal of Transport and Land Use 7(3):47-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.v7i3.729
Cheng L, Chen X, Yang S, Wu J, Yang M (2017). Structural equation models to analyze activity participation, trip generation, and mode choice of low-income commuters. Transportation Letters 11(6):341-349. https://doi.org/10.1080/19427867.2017.1364460
Coevering van de P, Maat K, Kroesen M, Wee van B (2016). Causal effects of built environment characteristics on travel behaviour: a longitudinal approach. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research 16(4):674-697. https://doi.org/10.18757/ejtir.2016.16.4.3165
Coogan MA, Adler T, Karash H (2012). The paths from walk preference to walk behavior: applying latent factors in Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of Transport and Land Use 5(3):68-82. https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.v5i3.269
De Abreu e Silva J (2014). Spatial self-selection in land-use-travel behaviour interactions: Accounting simultaneously for attitudes and socioeconomic characteristics. Journal of Transport and Land Use 7(2):63-84. https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.v7i2.696
De Abreu e Silva J, Konstadinos G, Goulias (2008). Using structural equations modeling to unravel the influence of land use patterns on travel behaviour of urban adult workers of Puget sound region. In: 88th Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting. Transportation Research Record, Washington DC pp 1-17. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0j18r6fk
De Abreu e Silva J, Lucchesi S (2022). Land-use patterns, location choice, and travel behavior: Evidence from São Paulo. Journal of Transport and Land Use 15(1):315-332. https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.2022.2125
De Vos J, Cheng L, Witlox F (2021). Do changes in the residential location lead to changes in travel attitudes? A structural equation modeling approach. Transportation 48:2011-2034. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-020-10119-7
Devlin JA (2010). Structural effects of the built environment on vehicle greenhouse gas emissions: evidence from Vancouver, Canada. MSc Dissertation, The University of British Columbia. https://dx.doi.org/10.14288/1.0068848
Etminani-Ghasrodashti R, Ardeshiri M (2015). Modeling travel behaviour by the structural relationships between lifestyle, built environment and non-working trips. Transportation Research Part A 78:506-518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2015.06.016
Ewing R, Cervero R (2010). The role of built environment characteristics and residential self- selection on car use and active travel. Journal of the American Planning Association 76(3):265-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944361003766766
Ewing R, Hamidi S, Grace JB (2015). Compact development and VMT – Environmental determinism, self-selection, or some of both? Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265813515594811
Faber R, Merkies R, Damen W, Oirbans L, Massa D, Kroesen M, Molin E (2021). The role of travel-related reasons for location choice in residential self-selection. Travel Behaviour and Society 25:120-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2021.07.003
Frank LD, Schmid TL, Sallis J, Chapman FJ, Saelens BE (2005). Linking objectively measured physical activity with objectively measured urban form findings from SMARTRAQ. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 28(2):117-25. https://10.1016/j.amepre.2004.11.001
García-Palomares JC, Gutiérrez J, Cardozo OD (2013). Walking accessibility to public transport: An analysis based on microdata and GIS. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 40(6):1087-1102. https://doi.org/10.1068/b39008
Gim TT (2011). Influences on trip frequency according to travel purposes: A structural equation modeling approach in Seoul, South Korea. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 38(3):429-446. https://doi.org/10.1068/b36061
Gim TT (2016). Testing the reciprocal relationship between attitudes and land use in relation to trip frequencies: A nonrecursive model. International Regional Science Review 39(2):203-227. https://doi.org/10.1177/0160017613512651
Gim TT (2018). An analysis of the relationship between land use and weekend travel: focusing on the internal capture of trips. Sustainability 10:425. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10020425
Gim TT (2019). Examining the effects of residential self-selection on internal and external validity: an interaction moderation analysis using structural equation modeling. Transportation Letters 11(5):275-286 https://doi.org/10.1080/19427867.2017.1338544
GSS (2010). Population and housing census 2010: Summary of final report. Ghana Statistical Services, Accra. Retrieved 2024 August 20 from https://www.statsghana.gov.gh/gssmain/storage/img/marqueeupdater/Census2010_Summary_report_of_final_results.pdf
GSS (2013). Second national household transport survey report 2012. Ministry of Roads and Highways, Ministry of Transport, and Ghana Statistical Service, Accra. Retrieved 2023 November 23 from https://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/publications/Second%20National%20Household%20Transport%20Survey%20Report%202012.pdf
GSS (2021). Population and housing census, 2021. Ghana Statistical Services, Accra. Retrieved 2024 September 10 from https://census2021.statsghana.gov.gh/
Guan X, Wang D Jason Cao X (2020). The role of residential self-selection in land use-travel research: a review of recent findings. Transport Reviews 40(3):267-287. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2019.1692965
Hair JF, Anderson RF, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE (2014) Multivariate Data Analysis: Pearson New International Edition. Seventh Edition. Edinburgh Gate, Pearson Education Limited.
Hair JF, Black W, Babin B, Anderson R (2019). Multivariate Data Analysis. Eighth edition, Cengage, Andover, United Kingdom. https://eli.johogo.com/Class/CCU/SEM/_Multivariate%20Data%20Analysis_Hair.pdf
Hair JF, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE (2010). Multivariate data analysis. Seventh edition, Pearson, New York.
Ivan I, Horak J, Zajickova L, Burian J, Fojtik D (2019). Factors influencing walking distance to the preferred public transport stop in selected urban centres of Czechia. GeoScape 13:16-30. https://doi.org/10.2478/geosc-2019-0002
Javid MA, Abdullah M, Ali N, Dias C (2021). Structural equation modeling of public transport use with COVID-19 precautions: An extension of the norm activation model. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 12:100474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2021.100474
Joe-Asare T, Stemn E, Amegbey N (2023). Relationships among causal factors influencing mine accidents using structural equation modelling. International Journal of Injury Control and Safety Promotion 30(4):643-651, https://doi.org/10.1080/17457300.2023.2248491
Kang H, Ahn J (2021). Model setting and interpretation of results in research using structural equation modeling: a checklist with guiding questions for reporting. Asian Nursing Research 15:157-162. https://10.1016/j.anr.2021.06.001
Khairi MI, Susanti D, Firman S (2021). Study on structural equation modeling for analyzing data. International Journal of Ethno-Sciences and Education Research 1(3):52-60. https://10.46336/ijeer.v1i3.295
La Paix Puello L, Monzón A, Cherchi E, Loro M (2013). Residential self-selection and geographical scales in trip frequency. In: Proceedings of the 13th World Conference of Transport Research, WCTR, Río, Brazil pp 1-24. https://ris.utwente.nl/ws/portalfiles/portal/5520654/2876.pdf
Lin J, Yang A (2009). Structural analysis of how urban form impacts travel demand: evidence from Taipei. Urban Studies 46(9):1951-1967. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098009106017
Maat K, Timmermans HJP (2009). A causal model relating urban form with daily travel distance through activity/travel decisions. Transportation Planning and Technology 32(2):115-134. https://doi.org/10.1080/03081060902861285
Masoumi H (2021). Residential location choice in Istanbul, Tehran, and Cairo: The Importance of Commuting to Work. Sustainability 13(10):5757. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105757
McIntosh J, Trubka R, Kenworthy J, Newman P (2014). The role of urban form and transit in city car dependence: Analysis of 26 global cities from 1960 to 2000. Transportation Research Part D 33:95-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2014.08.013
Mokhtarian PL, Cao X (2008). Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behavior: a focus on methodologies. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological 43(3):204-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trb.2007.07.006
Naess P (2014). Tempest in a teapot: The exaggerated problem of transport-related residential self-selection as a source of error in empirical studies. Journal of Transport and Land Use 7:57-79. https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.v7i3.491
Nkeki FN, Asikhia OM (2023). Does built environment matter in a medium-sized African city? Empirical evidence from the interaction between land use and travel behavior. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 21:100881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2023.100881
Okyere DK (2018). Effects of mobile phone use on household travel behavior in Kumasi, Ghana. PhD Thesis, University of Texas, Dallas.
Parady GT, Chikaraishi M, Takami K, Harata N (2014). A panel data approach to understanding the effect of the built environment on travel behavior - A case study of the Kashiwanoha Area, Chiba, Japan. Urban and Regional Planning Review 1:18-38. https://doi.org/10.14398/urpr.1.18
Park K, Ewing R, Scheer BC, Tian G (2018). The impacts of built environment characteristics of rail station areas on household travel behavior. Cities 74:277-283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.12.015.
Pinjari AR, Pendyala RM, Bhat C, Waddell P (2007). Modeling residential sorting effects to understand the impact of the built environment on commute mode choice. Transportation 34(5):557-573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-007-9127-7
Rahman MM, Nilufar F (2024). An investigation into the land use pattern of Dhaka: Identifying activity nodes for a compact city. Spatium 52:1-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/SPAT240630014R
Ramezani S, Hasanzadeh K, Rinne T, Kajosaari A, Kyttä M (2021). Residential relocation and travel behavior change: Investigating the effects of changes in the built environment, activity space dispersion, car and bike ownership, and travel attitudes. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 147:28-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2021.02.016
Sardari R, Hamidi S, Pouladi R (2018). Effects of traffic congestion on vehicle miles traveled. Transportation Research Record 2672(47):92-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198118791865
Scheiner J (2010). Social inequalities in travel behaviour: trip distances in the context of residential self-selection and lifestyles. Journal of Transport Geography 18(6):679-690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2009.09.002
Schumacker RE, Lomax RG (2010). A beginner’s guide to structural equation. Third edition, Rutledge. New York.
Schwanen T, Mokhtarian PL (2005). What affects commute mode choice: neighborhood physical structure or preferences toward neighborhoods. Journal of Transport Geography 13:83-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2004.11.001
Setiawan E, Pratiwi A, Herawati N, Nisa K, Faisol A (2021). A structural equation modeling of factors affecting student motivation in thesis preparation. Journal of Physics 1751:012030. https://doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1751/1/012030
Sinniah GK, Shah MZ, Vigar G, Aditjandra PT (2016). Residential Location Preferences: New Perspective. Transportation Research Procedia 17:369-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2016.11.128
Soinio L (2021). The role of built environment characteristics and residential self-selection on car use and active travel. MSc Thesis, Aalto University. https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:aalto-202105236909
STMA (2021). Medium-term development plan 2022-2025. Sekondi Takoradi Metropolitan Assembly, Ghana. Retrieved 2024 September 6 from https://stma.gov.gh/documents/STMA%20MEDIUMTERM%20DEVELOPMENT%20PLAN%20%202022%202025%20final.pdf
Van Acker V, Boussauw K, Witlox F (2011). Understanding modal choices for leisure activities. Is it just objectively determined? Belgian Journal of Geography 1-2:105-120. https://doi.org/10.4000/belgeo.6395
Wala AA, Alim S, Setyatama F (2020). Use of structural equation modeling method for analysis of factors affecting the quality of library services of Bhayangkara University. Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences 5(2):835-844. https://doi.org/10.54732/jeecs.v5i2.89.
Wang D, Lin T (2019). Built environment, travel behavior, and residential self-selection: a study based on panel data from Beijing, China. Transportation 46(1):51-74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-017-9783-1
Wang D, Lin T (2014). Residential self-selection, built environment, and travel behaviour in the Chinese context. Journal of Transport and Land Use 7(3):5-14. https://doi.org/10.5198/jtlu.v7i3.486
Westland JC (2015). Structural equation models, from paths to networks. Springer International Publishing Vol 22. Springer, Cham (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16507-3
Wolday F (2018). Land use and travel behavior in small cities. PhD Thesis, Norwegian University of Life Sciences. http://dx.doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16227.50724
Yang Q, Zhang Z, Cai J, Ding M, Li L, Zhang S, Song Z, Chen F, Ling Y (2025). Quality of pedestrian networks around metro stations: An assessment based on approach routes. Systems 13:63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/systems13010063
Zhao C, Nielsen TA, Olafsson AS, Carstensen TA, Meng X (2018). Urban form, demographic and socio-economic correlates of walking, cycling, and e-biking: Evidence from eight neighborhoods in Beijing. Transport Policy 64:102-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2018.01.018
Zhou B, Kockelman KM (2008). Self-selection in home choice: Use of treatment effects in evaluating relationship between built environment and travel behaviour. Transportation Research Record 2077(1):54-61. https://doi.org/10.3141/2077-08
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Joel K. LAWERTEH, Michael S. ADUAH , Saviour MANTEY
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Distribution - Permissions - Copyright
Papers published in Nova Geodesia are Open-Access, distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution License.
© Articles by the authors; licensee SMTCT, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. The journal allows the author(s) to hold the copyright/to retain publishing rights without restriction.
License:
Open Access Journal - the journal offers free, immediate, and unrestricted access to peer-reviewed research and scholarly work, due to SMTCT support to increase the visibility, accessibility, and reputation of the researchers, regardless of geography and their budgets. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author.
